Kindred by Octavia E. Butler

Octavia Estelle Butler was an American sci-fi essayist, one of not many African-American ladies in the field. In 1979, she distributed Kindred, a novel which utilizes the sci-fi method of time travel to investigate servitude in the United States.THESIS STATEMENTButler takes on and redrafts the Slave account by depicting the genuine conditions of bondage as a long dim period during which the blacks were denied uniqueness and even humanity.INTRODUCTION TO THE TEXTThe tale relates the tale of Dana, an African American lady living in 1976 who is more than once tossed back so as to the prior to the war south. She is called by her predecessor, Rufus, from the time he is a kid through to adulthood. Rufus is white and from a slave possessing family. Dana is put in the troublesome situation of verifying that Rufus and Alice have a youngster, Hagar, who is Dana's immediate progenitor Each time she goes back in time, she remains longer, and returns just when her life is at serious risk. She qui ts getting sent back in time after she kills Rufus.Jobs allocated to the slaves in the house and in the fieldsEnslaved individuals needed to clear new land, burrow dump, cut and take wood, butcher domesticated animals, and make fixes to structures and apparatuses. In numerous occasions, they filled in as mechanics, smithies, drivers, craftsmen, and in other gifted exchanges. Individuals of color worried about the extra concern of thinking about their families by cooking and dealing with the youngsters, just as turning, weaving, and sewing.The family structure of the slaves and the social connections among the slavesSlaves wedded, had kids, and endeavored to keep their families together. Individuals of color, ladies, and youngsters built up an underground culture through which they insisted their humankind. House hirelings would descend from the â€Å"big house† and give updates on the ace and paramour, or keep individuals snickering with their impersonations of the whites.the connection among slaves and their mastersBecause they lived and worked in such closeness, house workers and their proprietors would in general structure increasingly complex connections. Highly contrasting youngsters were particularly in a situation to frame bonds with one another. Dark kids may likewise get appended to white guardians, for example, the special lady, and white youngsters to their dark babysitters. Since they were so youthful, they would have no comprehension of the framework they were naturally introduced to, as Dana uncovers, â€Å"Without knowing it, they set me up to survive† (pg94 Kindred) African American ladies needed to persevere through the danger and the act of sexual exploitation.There were no shields to shield them from being explicitly followed, irritated, or assaulted, or to be utilized as long haul mistresses by bosses and regulators. Not long after her last youngster is conceived, Alice flees again in light of the fact that she fears that she will â€Å"turn into exactly what individuals call her† (pg 235 Kindred). She fears that she will lose her feeling of self and acknowledge her situation as sexual chattel†.CONCLUSIONSince the start of hostile to African American response through our current contemporary society, bondage carries on to be a petulant and conflicting issue.â Slavery influences every individual living inside the United States outskirts and all through our world. No subject in the American past has incited more noteworthy conversation and kindled more contention than servitude. From the appearance of the main Africans at Jamestown in 1619, through the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, to contemporary chronicled discusses, the nearness and oppression of Africans has been protected, assaulted and analyzed.WORKS CITEDOctavia E. Head servant (1979) Kindred, Page 94 and 235. Recovered on first November 2006

Computer Games essays

PC Games expositions The quantity of PCs sold and the level of individuals who own them is consistently on the ascent. Since such a major ascent has occured, an extraordinary interest for greater enterainment has been made for PCs. The quantity of PCs that have been bought all through the world has arrived at a surprising 93 million with 36 million being purchased in the United States. The percent of americans who have PCs in their homes is an astonishing 50% (Samuel 52). Eveyone doesn't have a similar diversion needs which means program planners need to grow new programming to address these issues. Addressing the necessities is an exceptionally troublesome assignment and is impossible on standard working staffs. so to stay aware of the ever-expanding request the product organizations have utilized more than one million individuals so as to stay aware of the interest of programming and to remain in front of the opposition (Samuelson 52). A few people accept that grown-ups are the main ones utilizing the 36 million PCs. This conviction is false. All things considered, youngsters are the future comsumers of PC organizations. PC organizations are creating instructional learning games and computer games. The computer game division is the fundamental cash producer for the organizations. Since the organizations are needing to make more benefit , they are beginning to advance 3-D illustrations, computer generated reality games in magazines and enhancements to seize a the child's consideration. Organizations have brought a great deal of new innovation into the gaming scene. The games are getting substantially more genuine with number of bits contained in the games to deliver the greatest illustrations. Organizations are not utilizing these progressions to duplicate the games, but instead to make fresher games that require another procedure or idea. PC game planners started to invest heavily in making the scenes in their games as genuine as could be expected under the circumstances and as bloody as could be expected under the circumstances. This brings up an issue of should kids be permitted to play these games. The number ... <!

Nestle's Commitment to Africa Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Settle's Commitment to Africa - Essay Example Settle has endeavored to conquer the injury brought about by its errors. Settle has done certain things to improve its picture in Africa. It keeps on utilizing more than 10,000 individuals on the mainland, and its accomplices utilize another 50,000. Also, Nestle adds to UN advancement ventures importance to dispense with destitution and appetite just as fighting ailment. Nobody can return to the past, however individuals can attempt to improve a tomorrow. 3. In any case, there is consistently opportunity to get better. Settle might have the option to improve its dedication in Africa. It could do as such by straightforwardly tending to the multi year old blunders in had made. On the off chance that it has not done so as of now, it is savvy to freely concede and clarify the course of its missteps. In this manner, Nestle could likewise set a guide to make truly purposeful compensation to the harmed gatherings and networks. Eventually, it individuals should take care to make the right decision in any

Cause and Effect Research Paper Tips

<h1>Cause and Effect Research Paper Tips </h1> <h2>What Is So Fascinating About Cause and Effect Research Paper? </h2> <p>No matter in which you position the data, it's significant. You may accumulate data from the net. The subject of your examination paper is the integral factor that will set up the gauge of its substance, notwithstanding how the data is transferred to the peruser. It is basic to take note of that if settling on a subject on history and world occasions, you need to be certain that there's sufficient information on it. </p> <h2> The Good, the Bad and Cause and Effect Research Paper</h2> <p>When you investigate the reason for the paper and the crowd degree, you can decide the supporting reports you need to gather and give in your composition. Elucidate quickly on the key focuses that are to be shrouded in the examination paper, giving motivation behind why perusers should look into the subject. The entire proposal ought to show up from the get-go in the paper all together for your peruser realizes where you're going. </p> <p>There are contentions with respect with the impact of the wireless on human correspondence. What different effects have the uprisings had. As can be seen, setting up circumstances and logical results is among the most pivotal aspects in planning a hearty research test. A few variables like downturn, redistributing, and inadequacy of instruction have been fronted in an undertaking to explain the marvel. </p> <h2> Key Pieces of Cause and Effect Research Paper </h2> <p>You locate the previously mentioned reasoning is nearly saying that we have the capacity to recuperate ourselves. In a concise paper, it might be trying to handle the explanation and all the numerous impacts of a tremendous occasion like the Great Depression. Take as much time as is needed to completely analyze our circumstances and logical results points list till you find a brief that you're eager to expound on. There are a few areas to investigate while searching for appropriate purpose and impact points. </p> <h2> The Appeal of Cause and Effect Research Paper</h2> <p>When you might want to make a spectacular circumstances and logical results article for school, getting a drawing in theme you should realize that you could have a ton of fun as well! For understudies, composing a circumstances and logical results article requires a decent arrangement of thought and a specific measure of research expertise, in any case, it shouldn't be a difficult undertaking. Expounding on the explanation and impact article subjects associated with the school's prominence or enduring the underlying year in school could be fine to snatch the enthusiasm of your companions. Points for a circumstances and logical results article can be found on the web, or you may conceptualize with a companion and see what you could turn out to be yet plainly, you can even discover online proposals on composing papers for school. </p> <p>You may recognize there are different kind of effect on that cause and after that limit the conversation to the most significant ones. Before you begin taking a shot at circumstances and logical results article diagram the absolute first thing you need to do is to choose a triumphant subject. Once more, remember there are a few causes that are roundabout, or remote. A reason is a cause or the primary explanation behind occurring of a particular movement. </p> <p>There different advances you should follow as an approach to make an unrivaled research paper. An examination paper is a significant solid and steady paper about a subject you need to archive for. Distributing it probably won't assist you with getting a vocation as an analytics teacher yet it is useful in numerous fields. Pugnacious Research Paper The contentious research paper is intended to convince the peruser of a particul ar point. </p> <p>Use change words like as an outcome, in this way, accordingly, on account of, at that point, along these lines, subsequently and others to recommend to the peruser that you're examining impacts. Now you realize how you're going to focus regarding your matter and the manner in which you are probably going to choose the material for your examination. In case you're expounding on World War I, for example, notice the political, social, and recorded components that brought about the incredible war. Your exploration interest doesn't have to need to be hard on the off chance that you comprehend what you're doing. </p> <h2> New Step by Step Roadmap for Cause and Effect Research Paper </h2> <p>An exposition about the wellspring of the American Civil War could begin with bondage and after that proceed onward to different thoughts, including states' privileges. Else, you may simply choose one. Our expert analysts and scholars can assist you with acquiring significant levels on examination papers which you essentially request around. Circumstances and logical results papers should be introduced in an intelligent movement to allow the peruser to follow. </p> <h2> The New Fuss About Cause and Effect Research Paper</h2> <p>Additionally, you may focus on only a solitary reason or on just one impact. In addition, you should ensure your causes are in actuality connected to their belongings. The enormous circumstances and end results of a paper are known as the primary driver and impacts. It is vital to recall that at some point, numerous causes bring about a solitary impact or numerous impacts may really be from 1 cause.</p> <p>While portraying a medical issue, for example, some sort of ailment, it's conceivable to incorporate various results. Regardless of the subject and how wide your work will be, you should have all the causes and every last one of the impacts clear in your contemplations. At precisely the same time, distinguishing circumstances and logical results connections isn't that simple with respect to the determination of a great circumstances and logical results exposition subject. Another quandary is an outcome. </p> <p>Besides being an extensive task without anyone else, circumstances and logical results composing may likewise include as section a greater task. Remember to show the method of improvement you picked in the subject line of your posting. You have to do inquire about all together for your focuses and thoughts will have the vital supporting subtleties. To succeed, you should realize some fundamental components to intrigue your class. </p> <h2> The New Fuss About Cause and Effect Research Paper</h2> <p>Then you ought to figure out how you can better your exposition to accomplish your mentors principles. Great research is crucial with respect to composing an excellent circumstances and logical results paper. As an approach to make a viable exposition, you should track with your educator's guidelines.</p> <p>Before you start composing, it's imperative to make a diagram with the exploration that you may have done about this issue. The point might be increasingly hard to deliver. Causes are presented as pugnacious themes which present the principle subjects of contemporary society in a compact introduction where inventiveness is focal. Before choosing an exploration point ask yourself these inquiries. </p>

Top Junior High School Essay Topics Guide!

<h1> Top Junior High School Essay Topics Guide! </h1> <h2> The Hidden Facts on Junior High School Essay Topics </h2> <p>There are a couple of incredible themes to consider when picking a point for your factious article. No one truly wishes to make a paper. On account of the right determination of introduction style and an intensive comprehension of the objectives you have to achieve in your article, there are numerous classifications exposition topics might be broken into. You should see totally that you're not composing an elucidating article. </p> <h2> The Argument About Junior High School Essay Topics </h2> <p>In this sort of circumstance, it's increasingly advantageous to find instant articles and use them for instance. References and concentrates from arranged sources must be designed appropriately. Utilizing solid hotspots for research is significant. At that point, there's the configuration. </p> <h2> What You N eed to Do About Junior High School Essay Topics Before It's Too Late </h2> <p>There's, clearly, a cutoff on the assortment of pages even our best authors can deliver with a squeezing cutoff time, however for the most part, we can fulfill all the customers looking for critical help. Finally, in the event that you will compose and exposition yet have almost no information or enthusiasm for the subject, recollect that there are bunches of custom paper authors which will happily carry out the responsibility for you. To pick which subject you're probably going to talk about, it's fundamental to see the total assortment of good convincing discourse themes from the particular zone of study. Likewise, an entire amendment is basic at the end of the endeavor.</p> <p>Think of one benefit which you couldn't imagine anything better than to have that you don't have now. The democratic age should be brought down. It's obviously that you ought to settle regarding a matter that you see as fascinating. </p> <h2> Rumors, Lies and Junior High School Essay Topics </h2> <p>Some schools in america are necessitating that understudies volunteer for various hours every semester to help on a network issue. Open supplication shouldn't be permitted in schools. The City Council needs a high schooler for a part to represent your age gathering. Understudies should have the option to leave school for lunch. </p> <p>Think around a couple of teenagers you know. Compose a paper to persuade the grown-ups in your home to loan you the vehicle at whatever point you want it. TV is building up another variation of culture The senior classes should be profiled Education for young men and young ladies should be independent Many people think the perfect method to travel is via vehicle Activity is the sole way to deal with information The centrality of training is belittled at this point. On the 1 hand, understudies of that age are normally not rewarded like they were youngsters, educators endeavor to impart as. </p> <p>Debates are an astounding path for understudies to engage with class. Classes, exposition points could be separated into. </p> <p>Employing a story behind paper stars has rather solid. Sports stars should be sure good examples. </p> <p>Give reasons why you accept your arrangement would take care of business. A short time later, you need to clarify the clarifications for which you bolster that side. At the point when you have the theme, answer the inquiry and after that help your answer with at least three clarifications for why you trust it. All the time it turns out to be difficult to pick 1 subject either because of the numerous thoughts in the understudy's head, or because of their total nonattendance. </p> <h2> The Honest to Goodness Truth on Junior High School Essay Topics</h2> <p>The cost of a paper rides on the amount of exertion the author needs to apply. These days it is incredibly hard to find a dependable paper composing administration. In the event that you've just moved on from school or college and are attempting to get an awesome line of work, you shou ld get an enticing resume to intrigue your future boss. </p> <p>Every one of the thoughts above will furnish you with an opportunity to uncover your inventive side and ability to discuss your assessment. Without a doubt, today apparently getting your hands on such a data is clear. Droz If the cash doesn't serve you, it will administer over you. In order to select a fascinating subject, which will exhibit your best gifts, you should keep reading.</p> <h2> Life, Death and Junior High School Essay Topics</h2> <p>You need to uncover the perusers that you ace of this issue and not a confounded beginner who doesn't comprehend what the person alluding to. Once in a while it occurs at the very beginning, when you don't have any intimation what things in any case, lacking inventiveness and motivation even to deliver something brief. Distinguishing a specialist is exactly what you need to do. Someone works low maintenance and doesn't have adequate opportunity to do the entirety of the assignments. </p>

The Writing Research Papers Weidenborner Cover Up

<h1> The Writing Research Papers Weidenborner Cover Up </h1> <p>Research papers should exhibit an understudy's scholastic comprehension of a subject. By the by, the secret to a flourishing examination paper is association. Composing a brilliant research paper begins with aggregating a phenomenal proposition explanation. It relies upon the information on understudies and on the away from of understudies on specific theme. </p> <p>Argument paper must peruse overall task, scholastic research methodology. At the point when you have taken shading coded notes, you'll be in a situation to sort your notes all the more without any problem. Clarify the target of your paper and the manner in which you expect to move toward the theme. At that point add various labels to illuminate the paper itself. </p> <p>When venturing into the Discourse for the absolute first time it's easy to peruse a reading material and believe that it is actuality. Regardless of whether it's a basic instructive endeavor or a muddled one, they can deal with any kind of scholastic work. In case you're lucky enough to get one of the respectable ones, you will be in a situation to blend to your similar companions in a study hall setting. In the event that an understudy shows up to school and doesn't see how to compose viably, at that point they're probably going to battle. </p> <h2> The Secret to Writing Research Pape rs Weidenborner </h2> <p>Thus, you probably won't question their quality. You will find that it resembles creating structure capacities. The essential bit of leeway of our modified composing is that you take full charge of the creative cycle. Make rules of what you might want to do in your exploration. </p> <p>A great research paper help organization has gained notoriety for furnishing its clients with great top notch examine paper model assistance for inexpensively. Also, you can arrange one-page independent company plan with the goal that you'll have a decent layout dependent on which you'll have the option to structure the whole work. The technique for working through an exploration venture was made to be. The other significant issue is that the entire tweaked MLA style papers offered to customers must be literary theft free and unique so they can prompt scholarly achievement and greatness. </p> <p>Each day you must perform a lot of assignments and procedure a lot of data. In case you're astounding who can help you with the task at the most reduced cost just like an understudy and might be squeezed for cash, you're at the suitable spot as we offer modest hand crafted works. You need to decipher your theme in your manner and be unique. A few examines talk about a gen eral theme while some are overseeing something explicit. </p> <h2> What You Need to Know About Writing Research Papers Weidenborner</h2> <p>You should have the option to put down thoughts found in the audit material in your words and in a simple and clear technique. A few titles can be deceiving, and that implies you'll have a few sources which don't work out. The other significant nature of MLA style papers layout is it should be composed utilizing total sentences. Next, you need to consider which position you might want to create your examination papers in. </p> <p>Writing College inquire about papers College courses request different sorts of composing that utilize a wide range of systems for different crowds. Consequently, on the off chance that you imagine that your aptitudes in finishing papers aren't sufficient to think about a great paper or affirmation exposition which will assist you with getting into school, exploit Pro-Papers. Explorin g is just finding the informationthat is probably going to make your paper valid. </p> <p>There are various sorts of surveys in scholastic composition. On the off chance that you need help on thesis composing, our specialists give you direction about how to compose an exceptional paper. The ideal answer for such understudies is to scan for custom composing organizations which give custom papers composed utilizing various habits of referencing and citations.</p> <h2> A Secret Weapon for Writing Research Papers Weidenborner </h2> <p>Most customers fret about the security of the data that they give to composing organizations. Promoting is the expansive exhibit of exercises engaged with ensuring you're proceeding to satisfy the prerequisites of your customers and receiving an incentive consequently. Scholastic writing in our business is typically altered to the directions provided by the clients. Numerous clients come to us with awesome proposals for going into business endeavor. </p> <p>Now there's a rundown of assets. Others may decide to work in examine, despite the fact that that is every now and again the space of pharmacologists. On the off chance that you are scanning for the absolute best composing administrations on the web, you're in the perfect area. As the past asset, it's constantly insightful to utilize help from task composing administration. </p>

Fraud, Deceptions, and Downright Lies About 5 Paragraph Essay Writing Samples Exposed

<h1> Fraud, Deceptions, and Downright Lies About 5 Paragraph Essay Writing Samples Exposed </h1> <h2> Here's What I Know About 5 Paragraph Essay Writing Samples</h2> <p>Read your article to see whether it streams well. You can likewise observe scholarly article. You may likewise observe logical paper. You may likewise observe engaging exposition. </p> <p>When you begin to create your paper for a state sanctioned test, you need to initially choose what kind of exposition you are being mentioned to compose. In a long article, the theory should be in the absolute first or second section. The following is a genuine case of a 5-passage exposition. The following is a genuine case of an influential exposition relying upon the diagram talked about above. </p> <p>The really stunning presentation makes the crowd captivated with what they're finding out about and compel them to continue perusing the full paper. Simply be certain you get data you must have recorded as a hard copy so you won't have a lot of a troublesome time beginning. At the point when you are mentioned to create an article, endeavor to find a few examples (models) of comparative composition and figure out how to watch the specialty of the essayist. On the off chance that it comes to composing articles in school, the vast majority of us need some place to s tart. </p> <h2> Life, Death and 5 Paragraph Essay Writing Samples </h2> <p>The following thoughts will educate you how to form a predominant 5-section paper easily. The master authors frequently utilize the statements of renowned people to improve the presentation. The capacity of the acquaintance is with set the difficult which will be talked about effectively in your exposition. There is a tremendous choice of assessment article models that are particularly made for explicit purposes. </p> <p>There is nothing better than to utilize a specialist writer to complete your 5 section article. The rubric should tell you exactly what the educator is scanning for, while it's a 5 passage exposition or something any longer. In precisely the same vein, remember that everybody ought to be able to peruse your paper and have it bode well. As an issue of actuality, a urgent focal point exposition is focused on featuring incredible and feeble purposes of a parti cular statement. </p> <h2> What You Need to Do About 5 Paragraph Essay Writing Samples </h2> <p>The early on passage ought to likewise consolidate the postulation proclamation, a sort of smaller than usual framework for the article. End ought to likewise have the outline of the key purposes of the paper and give the last articulation by method of which the peruser comprehends that the conversation is finished. </p> <h2> The Paragraph Essay Writing Samples Game</h2> <p>Each sort of exposition has its own one of a kind auxiliary highlights, which must be carefully contemplated and known. Since articles are considerations and musings are things, we should know the suitable classification of paper that ought to be composed. A photograph exposition is a gathering of pictures with an absolute point or topic. The five-passage exposition will assist with forming a conspicuous reaction on this issue of a book. </p> <h2> The Supreme Approach for 5 Paragraph Essay Writing Samples </h2> <p>Concisely, having the capacity to compose 5 section articles is a fundamental aptitude that can help an individual traverse school and perform well. Normally, they assume a major job in the school application process, also. All in all, apparently task articles keep on getting a noticeable part in tertiary training as an appraisal device. Assessment papers can cover a mess of points that is the motivation behind why it is utilized in a determination of enterprises and procedures. </p> <p>The past segment of the initial section should lead the crowd into the absolute first passage of the human body section. The end originates from the significant section. The presentation has become the most significant passage since it supplies heading for the entire paper. </p> <p>Moreover, it's imperative to flexibly appropriate connections between sections. All things considered, be that as it may, 5 passages aren't hard to recall. It is critical to abstain from rehashing what has been examined in the former sections. The past section will be the last. </p> <p>The presentation is a basic segment of an article paper, which has a serious run of the mill structure. You're allowed to be sure here, and you're even allowed to drop minimal more pieces of data that make the peruser think more than you reviewed in the entire paper. Whenever you have to make a planned paper, you should begin with an edge subject to the parts underneath. For the most part, an essential focal point paper follows a commonplace article group design. </p>

High School Vs College Life Essay Writing

<h1>High School Vs College Life Essay Writing</h1><p>With all the unlimited choices accessible to the two understudies and guardians, secondary school versus school life article composing are rapidly turning into a standard encounter. You can get a ton of extraordinary data from some basic contemplations that can be made before you begin.</p><p></p><p>Writing the paper ought not be a very late occasion. Numerous understudies enter their lesser or senior year of secondary school knowing precisely what they need to state about themselves as well as other people however not having the opportunity or asset to assemble a point by point, influential, engaging paper that will stand apart from the pack. There is no should be overpowered, either - there are numerous assets accessible to assist you with article composing and numerous choices that you can consider.</p><p></p><p>College life as a grown-up is vastly different than it was as an understudy. For a certain something, numerous grown-ups need to acquire more cash to assist them with appreciating living the school lifestyle.</p><p></p><p>For another, getting into the college of your decision is serious. There are more candidates to each school thus there are more articles to look over. You don't need to stress that you won't have a similar kind of chance that you had when you were in secondary school as you do now.</p><p></p><p>Essays can be tied in with anything, albeit numerous understudies go for themes that they are enthusiastic about. Composing the paper on profession satisfaction and school life can be a smart thought in the event that you appreciate chipping away at vehicles, imagining contraptions, or being a novice chef.</p><p></p><p>Another thought for composing the exposition on school life is discussing how your loved ones influenced your choice to attend a universit y. Would you be able to review times when you needed to stay in the house? At the point when you were stuck at home and no one was coming to you?</p><p></p><p>There are a few different ways to compose a secondary school versus school life paper, including utilizing the intensity of online expositions. Online articles come in numerous arrangements, so finding the correct ones for you can be a simple errand. You can compose your paper from anyplace on the planet, if you have web access.</p>

Essay Writing Sample Exchange - A Good Way For All Your Students to Become Successful

<h1>Essay Writing Sample Exchange - A Good Way For All Your Students to Become Successful</h1><p>Every understudy has their own fantasies and objectives, however much of the time, the vast majority of these fantasies and objectives are still just dreams. It is significant for understudies to be given clear, important instances of a ton of good scholarly accomplishment so they can accomplish and be pleased with their accomplishments. In this way, for each understudy, the English Essay Writing tests given in this article can be valuable.</p><p></p><p>The objective of these English Essay Writing tests is to furnish the understudy with the chances to have their scholastic blessing from heaven. Numerous understudies understand that not exclusively will they need a decent English Essay Writing test, however they will likewise should have the option to utilize it furthering their potential benefit. In the first place, we should take a gander at the general scholarly history of the understudy. How about we additionally investigate how frequently this understudy would be in a circumstance that would be proper for them to compose an essay.</p><p></p><p>Students have their run of the mill scholarly vocation beginning when they are in their pre-adolescent years. This implies they will encounter a decent arrangement of karma as athletic achievement. All as the years progressed, they will be acquainted with various things and will no doubt be presented to the open doors that are accessible to them. The one thing that these understudies, in any event generally, won't be presented to is the opportunity to be acquainted with the methods for improving their capacity to compose scholarly essays.</p><p></p><p>This can be helped by offering a progression of scholastic composing tests to understudies. It ought to be noticed that there are a considerable number of various assets that can be foun d to discover genuine instances of composing models. It is additionally extremely simple to make these composing tests accessible to your understudies at no expense. Consequently, the most significant interesting point here is to ensure that your understudies are getting a decent scholastic experience.</p><p></p><p>Every understudy that is applying for an understudy paper, should get at any rate one English Essay Writing test from the exposition composing tests that are accessible. It is not necessarily the case that these understudies will be fruitful in accepting an example from each school. Notwithstanding, a couple of will be and those are the ones that will show them the way. These are the ones that will lead them to taking advantage of their scholastic life. Consequently, it is important that these understudies accept the open door to get in any event one of these samples.</p><p></p><p>When it comes to article composing tests, a considerable lot of these understudies may well choose to utilize the best essayists that they can discover. In any case, in light of the fact that these scholars are found by an exposition composing test trade, they can likewise utilize these journalists in the manner that they see fit.</p><p></p><p>All taking all things together, a decent article composing test trade is the thing that will represent the deciding moment these understudies and what will transform these understudies into victors. The purpose of these expositions is to ensure that the understudy gets the chance to get great involvement in English Essay Writing tests with the goal that they can become familiar with the essentials of composing scholarly essays.</p>

Research Papers Examples Zoology

Research Papers Examples ZoologyResearch papers examples zoology is an important part of science. A good number of the work conducted by the zoologists has led to discoveries that have helped mankind. It also provides a detailed and comprehensive account of the behavior, the origin, morphology, structure, ecology, distribution, and evolution of the animals, and the plants and other organisms living in this planet.To write good research papers examples zoology, one should know how the scientific method works. The ideas in research papers examples zoology can be derived from a variety of forms such as laboratory experiments, observations, analysis, inference, and conjecture. Writing research papers zoology is a combination of these ideas.Research on the part of nature can only take place if there is research on the part of man. It should be borne in mind that in order for man to do something, he must first know about it. As a result, when you conduct research papers examples zoology, y ou must come up with ideas that are somehow related to your subject. However, it is important to remember that you have to make sure that these ideas do not contradict one another.The important point is that your research papers examples zoology should be based on the existing knowledge. It should be concerned with the proven facts in a given field. You should first find out the fundamentals in a given field before moving on to the next subject that interests you. Once you have done this, you can start digging through the information base that you have on hand and study the things that you have learnt.The major challenge in writing research papers examples zoology is that the information that you have on hand may not be comprehensive. On the other hand, you will have to search the archives, and your work will not be complete. In order to meet the challengeof this, you should remember that you need to get hold of some information so that you can relate it to what you know and also to what you do not know.To help you achieve this, you should have at least a little free time in your schedule. You should be prepared to do this since you are only going to spend about a couple of hours every day to prepare for it. The other time should be put into finding out the information that you need to fill in the paper.It is also important to remember that writing the research paper's examples zoology has to be done quickly in order to come up with great ideas. For example, if you want to write about a specific animal, you should be able to put this idea in your mind as soon as you hear about it. If you take the example of rodents, you can apply this concept. For example, you can put down the name of the animal, its specific features, ecology, range, behavior, and importance for the survival of the species.It is important to note that there are many more important factors to take into consideration when writing research papers examples zoology. The most important factor of al l is that you should make sure that you provide a thorough account of your topic.

How To Ensure That One Is Effective And Efficient Within HR - 1375 Words

What is HR professionalism, and how to ensure that one is effective and efficient within HR (Coursework Sample) Content: Professionalism, Effectiveness and Efficiency in HR Name Institution Professionalism, Effectiveness and Efficiency in HR Organizations are typically divided into several departments to ease operations. The common departments found within organizations are finance, sales and marketing, research and development, and human resource management. Each of these departments plays a unique and invaluable role towards organizational growth and success; the HR unit greatly influences performance and outcomes in the organization (Khatri, Gupta unfortunately, lack of professionalism has been identified as a major concern among HR professionals. In a publication for the Queen’s University, Balthazard (2014) states that although exceptions exist, there are some HR managers and professionals who ruin the reputation of the HR function. In the context of HR, the term ‘professionalism’ is defined as â€Å"an attitude and approach to an occupation that is commonly characterized by intelligence, integrity, maturity, and thoughtfulness† (Balthaz ard, 2014 p.2). A professional worker is one who demonstrates commitment for their work while at the same time upholding ethics together with values (Ravand, 2014). Having established that sound HR practices are crucial to organizational survival and continuity, this paper examines the topic of what it means to be a HR professional, and what constitutes effectiveness and efficiency in HR. HR Professionalism According to Balthazard (2014), professionalism, on a general note, is built upon several pillars: balanced commercialism, competence, independence, spirit together with enthusiasm, integrity, service to the public, leadership, and integrity. However, the attributes that define professionalism vary depending on the field in which one operates. In HR, for example, professionalism is measured by the extent to which one builds trust and uses his/her professional expertise to make correct decisions. It also refers to the ability of HR managers to use their power morally and appropr iately (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, 2017). The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2017) outlines the defining attributes of professional HR managers. These include commitment, identity, situational judgment, sound knowledge together with skills, and social plus ethical responsibility. By ethical responsibility, it is meant that professional HR managers are those that use their knowledge to improve societal welfare. Identity, on the other hand, refers to loyalty to the HR community and fellow practitioners. Individuals are said to excel in situational judgment when they apply their knowledge to specific situations and circumstances. This is especially useful in conflict resolution. In addition to this, HR manages can only make relevant decisions and trustworthy choices when they solve conflicts in a manner that shows that they are sensitive to ethical choice. Similarly, professionalism is illustrated through courage to face up to accepted pract ice. The human resource function serves myriad purposes, one of these being enhancing organizational performance. Nevertheless, the professionalism of HR managers is gauged according to how sensitive they are to employees’ interests and concerns. The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2017, p.9) states that â€Å"since HR is responsible for making decisions that affect workers’ lives, it’s important that HR practitioners understand the sensitivities that come with managing human beings, rather than focusing solely on business profits†. The implication of this is that professionalism in HR calls for managers to give employees an opportunity to voice their opinions and grievances. Efficiency and Effectiveness in HR An important theme that emerges from the foregoing discussion is that HR managers are charged with the somewhat tricky task of striking a balance between focusing on achievement of organizational outcomes and upholding the needs and interests of employees. What this means is that HR managers are required to balance between the concepts of efficiency and effectiveness if they are to be considered professional in the work they do. The distinction between these two concepts is provided by Alexander (2008), who defines efficiency as the ability to achieve maximum or optimal results using the least resources possible. On the other hand, effectiveness comprises actions together with results that address issues related to people. In an HR context, efficiency is normally measured in terms of cost per-hire, whereas effectiveness is measured in terms of the magnitude of changes that have resulted from implementation of HR programs (Lawler enhancing the skills and capabilities of employees, and issuance of rewards regularly. In simple terms, effectiveness in HR can be ensured through practices such as employee retention, performance management together with rewards, employee development, and talent management. It is important for HR professionals to keep in mind that HR, like every other function, keeps changing in line with changes in the business environment. In an article titled ‘4 Effective, Innovative HR Practices You Can Adopt Today, Ingwersen (2018, para.1.) acknowledges the fact that â€Å"when it comes to HR and talent management, things are always changing†. The meaning of this is that the effectiveness of HR practices is determined by the prevailing circumstances; this indicates that certain practices that have proved effective in the past or in a given organization may not necessarily be effective at present or in another organization. In this light, therefore, the aspect of innovativeness becomes relevant†: HR managers must try to be innovative when developing HR practices and strategies. While the suitability of HR practices may vary from organization to another, several practices have been found effective in promoting HR professionalism. The first one is to vi ew employees through the lens of customers. It goes without saying that unless an organization’s employees are satisfied and adequately motivated; it is futile to expect customers to be satisfied. In this realization, Ingwersen (2018) advises HR managers to enhance the effectiveness of their HR practices by employing necessary strategies and incentives to make sure that employees are always happy and satisfied with their work. In practice, this may mean that HR effectiveness is enhanced through simple measures such as rewarding employees every time they post impressive results or meet set goals. It also means that managers should at all times provide employees with a conducive environment for them to implement their ideas, thus obtaining memorable, meaningful experiences in the workplace. HR effectiveness is also enhanced through team work and collective problem-solving. Ingwersen (2018) calls this the Hackathons strategy, which may simply be defined as multi-day collaborati ve forums wherein employees work together as a team in tackling problems or creating and implementing new ideas. The usefulness of teamwork in enhancing HR effectiveness is that it fosters creativity, loyalty, and dedication. Consequently, employees work together to improve the reputation and performance of their organization. HR professionalism, as ment...

Essay Topic - Essay Writing Tips For Writing About Not Fitting In

<h1>Essay Topic - Essay Writing Tips For Writing About Not Fitting In</h1><p>What sort of school exposition about not fitting in do you have to compose? Does it need to be one major long beast of a paper?</p><p></p><p>If you need to compose a fundamental school exposition about not fitting in then do it moderate. You would prefer not to over compose your article just to cause it to appear 'to some degree' changed, so you may take a stab at writing in sentences that circle around one another.</p><p></p><p>Studying doesn't work thusly - it's greatly improved to write in one long sentence. Ensure you intersperse, however to make it appear to be less similar to a long sentence don't utilize a word you're uncertain of. For instance attempt not utilizing the expression 'they appear as though they ought to read for AP English'. Rather you could utilize something like,'... or then again maybe they ought to concentrate to becom e regents, however they seem as though they're reading for the AP English</p><p></p><p>Be cautious that when you're composing the exposition that you don't give your talk or article any more consideration than is essential. Despite the fact that you're not expounding on your group, the exact opposite thing you need to do is make it sound like's everything you're about.</p><p></p><p>You could have a go at separating your article into a progression of papers, however the principle one should do the majority of the talking. Don't simply spare the contention and rundown part of the article for last since that may cause it to appear as though it's parting with the game.</p><p></p><p>Don't think about your exposition similar to a contention and don't consider it a contention all by itself, however consider it only a piece of a bigger contention. For instance, what is the most significant thing about not fitting in?< ;/p><p></p><p>Just remember that school expositions about not fitting in are somewhat extraordinary to your normal papers. Consider these tips and you'll have no issue finishing an incredible article on this point. Great luck.</p>

The Hidden Truth About Researched Analysis Essay Topics

<h1> The Hidden Truth About Researched Analysis Essay Topics</h1> <p>Finally, be that as it may, investigation of film isn't excessively extraordinary. Following pre-composing stages is the thing that each essayist must remember to have the option to make a gainful presentation. In the event that you are lucky enough to choose the bit of writing completely all alone, you need to make certain it's picked dependent on your preferences and enthusiasm of the crowd. Rewatch the film for subtleties which you will have missed in the absolute first survey. </p> <p>It's fascinating that bunches of understudies compose presentation after they've composed the entire paper. You additionally might need to find some history behind your theme. Understudies have occupied existences and as often as possible disregard a coming cutoff time. Writing understudies read a decent arrangement. </p> <p>There's an unending number of various article points which can be broke down. Individual sites are certifiably not an incredible asset. Together with the themes, you'd go over heaps of papers complimentary. Subjects can change contingent upon your majors. </p> <h2> The Hidden Gem of Researched Analysis Essay Topics</h2> <p>After getting a handle on the importance of what's a scholarly examination article, you should peruse the bit of writing being referred to commonly. You could make a solitary case with a lot of proof, or five professes to back up your point sentence. The end is practically identical to the presentation, however not exactly precisely the same. It ought to be a concise rehashing of your primary concerns without being a direct copy.</p> <p>you must present contentions on the side of a particular feeling. For instance, in case you're composing an investigative paper about science, you may make an amazingly direct and away from contention looking like a solitary sentence. Your postulation articulation is basic since it portends your key contention and makes way for the rest of your article. On the other hand, a powerless proposal explanation can debilitate your general examination since it will cause it to appear as though you can't obviously explain your contention. </p> <p>There's, obviously, a cutoff on the scope of pages even our absolute best scholars can deliver with a squeezing cutoff time, yet ordinarily, we make sense of how to fulfill all the customers looking for earnest help. As you conclude your subject decision, remember to pick a procedure you've finished numerous events and you can disclose to another person. In the event that you don't comprehend the issue, you've scarcely any chance s to succeed. You ought to have your reasons, and our chief concern is that you wind up getting an extraordinary evaluation. </p> <h2> The Ultimate Researched Analysis Essay Topics Trick</h2> <p>Try to recollect your decision shouldn't be in excess of a section or two. Your outline should be short, close to a few sections. You have to make your theory articulation. To end the full article, it's basic to offer a general finishing up expression. </p> <p>An examination article is a kind of influential exposition. Along these lines, a logical exposition is a touch of composing that gives an enlightening perception about the specific subject or thought. It's anything but an outline! At whatever point your investigative paper is completely composed up, they can let you verify that it's as phenomenal as it can get.</p> <h2> The Battle Over Researched Analysis Essay Topics and How to Win It </h2> <p>Quality over amount goes an exceptionally long path here. On the 1 hand, you may likewise investigate our Argumentative Essay formats to assist you with starting on your position paper. </p> <p>Analysis of unmistakable factors will be the balance for extra observational research. There's no general example of the best approach to make a scholarly investigation, as it enormously relies on the piece of work you should go over. Your synopsis of the activity will be contained inside the body. Composing a case of explanatory investigation isn't your most exceedingly terrible bad dream any longer!</p> <h2> Ideas, Formulas and Shortcuts for Researched Analysis Essay Topics </h2> <p>Any paper will be composed on schedule at a moderate cost. Try not to be hesitant to get some extra help to turn your paper stick out! Perusing the web and learning the data introduced on one of a kind entrances, you will decide the blueprint is basic. Layouts are creature shaped utilizing a progression of numbers and letter. </p> <p>Therefore, process investigations can be very nitty gritty and now and again very long. At whatever point you have done that, a nswer the following inquiries. You should offer data which is identified with your proposition. Data implied in end should be brief. </p>

What You Will Find In Medical Assistant Introduction Essay Samples?

What You Will Find In Medical Assistant Introduction Essay Samples?If you are in a process of entering the field of medical assistance, it is important that you consider the option of having an introduction essay samples prepared for you. These can be quite helpful in helping you to determine what sort of career path to pursue. You will need to find the right path to work towards and as such this is where an introduction essay sample will come in.As the name implies, these are written samples which have been created by medical assistants who already possess medical assistant introductory essay samples. This is advantageous because they provide you with an idea of what sorts of materials you should use to prepare for your introduction essay. This makes it much easier for you to know exactly what you will be required to create.Medical assistant introduction essay samples will help you determine what sorts of topics you should include in your essay. You will also get an idea of the leng ths of the essays that will be necessary. This will help you determine how much time you will have to prepare for your essay. You will also be able to decide how you will be spending your time on each topic so that you can determine whether this is something that you will want to pursue or not.It will also help you understand how important it is to create different essays. When you come across the appropriate material you will want to focus on this content and make sure that you do this in order to ensure that you have created an introduction that is going to be effective. You can then use this material in the later stages of your career.The writing that is required in medical assistant introduction essay samples are normally short so that they can be completed quickly. They will generally start off by talking about the kind of career that you are interested in. Then you will then get into detail on how you would like to be a part of that career and the basic idea of how you will go about getting there.Once you have written the introduction, you will want to consider how you will get it read. There are a number of different ways that you can do this. One way would be to have the essay sent to a physician who will then review the work and if he finds it to be appropriate he will forward it to a professional editor for the purposes of editing.As you can see there are several things that you can take from the information that you will find in the medical assistant introduction essay samples. What you do with these sample essays will greatly depend on the reasons that you have for choosing to do so. However, by considering the options that you have you will have better information when it comes to choosing the best path for yourself.

Essay The Many Benefits of Exercise - 1513 Words

Today in the United States roughly 155 million people are overweight or obese. The reason for this outrageous number is largely instigated from the lack of education about health and exercise. Exercise has a wide variety of positive effects on the body and mind that can be categorized into three main parts. Part one describes psychological benefits, including the influences exercise has on the mind and its functions, as well as the behavioral changes it presents. Part two explains the physical qualities that exercise can enhance. This effect incorporates the body as apposed to the mind. Exercise affects your overall body appearance and somatic health. Part three indicates the change it presents in your social life, this is†¦show more content†¦These chemicals are known as neurotransmitters, they function and transmit electrical signals in the nervous system. There are about 20 different types of endorphins in humans. Studies have shown that with higher endorphin levels humans feel less pain and experience fewer negative effects of stress. It is commonly called a â€Å"runners-high† that athletes get after prolonged exercise (Mayo Clinic, 2011). This increase in mood can be a great treatment for depression and its symptoms. Data from a study, done by clinical psychologist James Blumenthal, has shown that active people are less depressed than inactive people. This antidepressant is a direct affect from the endorphins. A study â€Å"Psychosomatic Medicine, 2007 2010† was done and showed that exercise can be easily compared to an antidepressant drug. This experiment used four different groups suffering from depression including supervised exercise, home based exercise, anti-depressant therapy, and placebo. After following these patients they found that it can treat symptoms and also help prevent the symptoms from coming back. Regular exercise can have immense impacts. Another psychological problem people face is anxiety. There is a science behind how activity can treat anxiety. When you feel scared or threatened, your nervous system is activated and you react with symptoms including sweating, dizziness and a racing heart. Many people with these issues respond to the symptomsShow MoreRelatedThe Many Benefits of Exercise Essay1054 Words   |  5 Pagesyour day, you have the opportunity to enhance your health. Having a morning impulse to exercise along with a weekly routine is one of the best investments we can make in ourselves. I completely agree in the great gratification received after exercising; especially knowing the benefits it has over ones mind and body. We should not be oblivious to any programs or recommendations that belittled the need to exercise. An example of this can be the claims made by weight loss products. The partisan endorsementsRead More importance of physical activity in youths Essay1100 Words   |  5 Pagesboth the mental and physical health aspects. Positive exercise habits f ormed in childhood tend to carry over into adulthood, thus helping reduce death and illness in the future. There are many other positive benefits that come through the form of exercise. Just as well, there are negative effects that can results from lack of exercise. Developing and instilling the importance of exercise through education is valuable to the youth of exercise. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;When determining physicalRead MoreHealthy Aging917 Words   |  4 Pagesever. Regular exercise helps seniors maintain health, boost energy, and improve confidence. The good news is, no matter your age, your health, or your fitness level, you can benefit from moving more. Whether you are generally healthy or are managing an illness, there are big and small ways to get more active and boost your fitness level. Exercise is extremely important for everyone, no matter what age you are. However for seniors, it becomes even more important. The problem is, many seniors doRead MoreExercise : Exercise And Exercise1721 Words   |  7 PagesMany times when people think of exercise it is thought of in an incredibly broad sense. There is no second thought given to whether the workouts are high or low pace, to what the level of exertion is, or the fluctuation of oxygen levels. With this being said, there are others that think of exercise in a more detailed way that live and breathe it, and are educated in the way the details of exercise works. This detailed broken down way of thinking breaks down breathing, heart rate, recovery, and manyRead MoreEssay On Importance Of Exercise1263 Words   |  6 Pagesthey have no time for bodily exercise will sooner or later have to find time for illness. ~Edward Stanley You can change your life for the better and propel it to achieve a much higher goal and position by sincerely following one simple activity and that is: Exercise. Top executives, world leaders and other peak performers all have one thing in common; they have thoroughly understood the tremendous power of vigorous exercise on a daily basis as a tool for excellence. Many students say that they don’tRead MoreBenefits Of Exercise. Https://Draxe.Com/Benefits-Of-Exercise/.1662 Words   |  7 PagesBenefits of exercise https://draxe.com/benefits-of-exercise/ While doing my research, I found this website that is extremely helpful and it has a lot of information that I need to know about the benefits of exercise. 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This is disturbing, not only because so many people are missing out on the physical benefits that result from exercise, but on the mental benefits that result from exercise as well II. Body Main Point #1: A great deal of attentionRead MoreThe Health Benefits of Exercise Essay example672 Words   |  3 Pagesstarted to work out and then stopped your work out routine so many times that you cannot keep track of the number of programs you have tried. Well you are not alone. In fact, by statistics that would make you an average American. All the same, working out for the sake of health and well-being is becoming increasingly important as we continue to learn the effects of inactivity. There are many benefits that arrive from the presence of exercise in your daily routine. Improve strength, improved cardiovascular

Erik Erikson free essay sample

His blond, Nordic appearance made him stand out among his young Jewish friends. In Germany and other parts of Europe at the turn of the century, anti-Semitic attitudes were quite pronounced (as was seen with Freud), and Erikson must have felt that he failed to fit into in with either the majority culture or the Jewish minority. Because of these unusual circumstances, he had an obvious â€Å"identity problem,† which surely influenced not only his unconventional lifestyle, but also his ideas about the crises that each person encounters at each stage of his or her life. As a young man, Erikson became a wanderer – almost a nomad – as he traveled through Europe. He also became an artist, and unsurprisingly given his independent nature, was largely self-trained. Erikson lived a bohemian lifestyle during these years, rebellious, but 9-1 also confused (Freidman, 1999). But he began teaching art to the children of Americans who came to Vienna to study psychoanalysis with Freud and his circle, specializing in children’s portraiture. He also became a Montessori instructor. It was at this time that he began studying psychoanalysis with Anna Freud, as well as being analyzed by her. Through his studies and associations with the psychoanalytic community he became one of the few psychoanalysts who practiced and was certified without a medical degree, specializing in chilld psychiatry. In 1933 Erikson, now married to Joan Mowat Erikson (nee Serson), migrated to America to escape European fascism. Joan Erikson became Erik’s editor and research collaborator; they had four children and remained married for 64 years, until his death in 1994 at age 81. Erikson’s real surname was Homberger, after his physician stepfather, but he changed it legally to Erik Homberger Erikson in 1939. Although he gave no formal reason for this change, some have suggested that this name symbolized a personal transformation, that he literally created himself, or gave himself his own identity, as â€Å"Erik’s son,† suggesting that he was the â€Å"son of himself. † Erikson taught at several prominent universities and institutes, including Yale, Berkeley, the Menninger Foundation, Mount Zion Hospital in San Francisco, and Harvard. More than once his socio-political views caused him to move on from one place to another. He left Yale for Berkeley because of the anti-Semitic attitudes he encountered there. Later he left Berkeley for the Austen Riggs treatment center in Boston because he objected to signing loyalty oaths – this was during the McCarthy era – even though he was not himself a Communist, it was a matter of principle for him. In addition to psychology, Erikson was also very interested in cultural anthropology, and he lived for a time among the Lakota Sioux in South Dakota and the Yurok tribe in California. He wrote on a wide variety of psychological and cultural themes, including combat stress in veterans (his term identity crisis came from research on war veterans3), cross-cultural child rearing practices, the dangers of nuclear war, racial tensions (he conducted lengthy conversations with social activist and Black Panther leader Huey Newton; Erikson, 1973), and juvenile delinquency. Among his books are Childhood and 9-2 Society (1950/1985), Identity: Youth in Crisis (1959/1980), The Life Cycle Completed (1982), Young Man Luther (1958), and Gandhi’s Truth (1969). His well-known stages of development were first formally presented in Childhood and Society, but the first three of the books listed here are especially relevant for this chapter. Erikson’s Psychosocial Emphasis Erikson extended Freud’s work by describing stages of development to include all of the human lifespan, from infancy through old age. Freud had little to say about stages beyond his genital stage (adolescence), although Erikson quotes him as stating that the important tasks of adulthood are â€Å"to love and to work† (Erikson, 1950/1985, p. 65). By contrast, Erikson’s stages of young adulthood, and the middle and later years, are well developed and offer many insights into the kinds of tasks presented to each of us by life itself as people mature and grow older. As with many other psychologists whose work is based in the psychoanalytic tradition following Freud, Erikson can be called an ego psychologist because he thought of the ego as something mo re than a check on the demands of the id and a moderator between id and superego. Rather, the ego has a life of its own. Although partly conscious and partly unconscious, the ego more clearly represents the total personality than does the id. Also, along with other ego psychologists, Erikson stressed the importance of social interactions in development, as opposed to Freud’s emphasis on development as a psychosexual process. The role of sex was indeed downplayed by Erikson, as it was by most post- or neo-Freudians in the psychodynamic tradition (including Jung, Adler, Horney, and Sullivan). Although he did not overtly deny psychosexual phenomena such as oral fixation and Oedipus complex, Erikson not only downplayed the role of sex but also even the unconscious mind, focusing more on interpersonal, social, and cultural influences. The Stages of Development Erikson saw that each stage of development presents its own unique challenges, which he called crises. Erikson believed that these 9-3 crises of the ego presented challenges to one’s individual identity. Successful development of the personality (or psychosocial development) depends on meeting and overcoming these tasks or crises. As can be seen from Table 9. 1 (based on Erikson, 1950/1985), Erikson’s stages up until young adulthood parallel Freudian stages, and include Freudian concepts, but also greatly expand on them. For Erikson, development proceeds according to the epigenetic principle. This term was originally used in embryology to denote physiological development as a kind of natural unfolding of the developing embryo into a fetus, then a child. If something disturbs the development of the embryo (an arm, for example) at the critical time in which that limb must develop, then the arm will never develop properly. The counterpart to the limb in psychosocial development is some aspect of the personality, such as the sense of basic trust in his first stage. As with Freud, Erikson believed that successful development at each stage was requisite for successful development at later stages. The analogy with biology breaks down somewhat, however, as Erikson was a great optimist: he believed that one could, through psychoanalysis (for example), deal with and resolve earlier conflicts later in life, although this was not an easy task. At each stage the developing child or adult is confronted with a conflict of opposing forces – basic trust versus mistrust in the first stage is an example. The child must experience both aspects of these conflicts; he or she must experience both trust and mistrust in order to come to a proper resolution. The child who trusts too much (is overindulged) becomes passive and dependent, whereas the child who mistrusts becomes cynical. Notice in Table 9. 1 that, in comparing Freud’s psychosexual stages with Erikson’s, the latter expands the scope of the so-called erogenous zones. For example, in Erikson’s first stage of Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust the oral zone is expanded to also include respiratory, sensory, and kinesthetic functions. In general, the trend with Erikson is not to see these so much as zones of libidinal cathexis, but more simply as just parts of human physiological functioning that are especially important in the developing person at that stage. The brief descriptions of the stages in Table 9. 1 also stress the social aspects of development over sexual aspects. -4 [Intentionally blank: Insert Table 9. 1 in these pages. ] 9-5 9-6 For each stage, Erikson specified a basic strength that arises from successful resolution of the identity crisis that the developing person faced at that stage. For Erikson, psychological growth is indeed growth of the ego. The opposite of a basic strength is called core pathology. For example, in Erikson’s first stage (the period that Freud called the oral stage) hope is the basic strength, withdr awal the core pathology. It can be argued Crane (2005) that Erikson’s theory qualifies as a stage theory in the same way that Piaget’s or Kohlberg’s theories do because once again the stages refer to qualitatively different behavior patterns; they concern general issues; they unfold in an invariant sequence; and they are thought to be culturally universal. This may work as a generality, but one must also consider that life’s difficulties, such as divorce or loss of a job or loved one, can set a person back (regression). First Stage: Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust (Psychosexual Mode is Oral, Respiratory, Sensory, Kinesthetic) The crisis the child faces at the first stage concerns basic trust versus basic mistrust. The basic strength of the first stage is hope, or the expectation that difficulties in life, presenting whatever challenges they may, will eventually result in a positive outcome. This sense of hope is, in turn, needed to meet the challenges presented at later stages of development. The antithesis of hope is a lack of hope and withdrawal. The crucial social interactions are with the mother or mother surrogate. What must be emphasized is that, through these interactions, the child learns both trust and mistrust, but in the right proportion: a healthy sense of mistrust is also necessary for successful dealings with others in social relations. As with Freud, Erikson recognized that problems will develop not only if the infant’s basic needs are neglected, but also if it is overindulged. With Erikson, however, the child’s needs are not merely oral, and are not primarily sexual. In addition to experiencing pleasure from breast or bottle, the child needs physical contact and consistency in attention. The child’s sense of trust grows along with the development of the ego: it senses that its needs will be met in an orderly fashion while also learning the importance of delay of gratification. An important example of ego 9-7 development and trust building is when the child learns to accept its mother’s absence without undo anxiety. Later theorists, picking up on Freud and Erikson, stressed the importance of successful attachment bonding between mother and child (Chapter 12). The child must not only learn to trust in its mother but also to trust in itself. This comes with learning of self-regulation, as when the child acclimatizes to teething and learns to suckle at the breast more gently. Erikson believed that the mother or mother figure plays an important part in the child’s development of trust, not only by meeting the child’s basic comfort and nurturance needs, but by having confidence in herself. He believed that an anxious mother transmitted this anxiety to the child, which he saw as unhealthy: a mother’s tension causes a corresponding state of tension in her baby, resulting in a feeling of insecurity and lack of trust. Second Stage: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (Pyschosexual Mode is Anal, Urethral, and Muscular) That the toddler struggles to gain a sense of autonomy or control of bodily functions, large, and small motor skills, should be quite obvious to the parents of such children. Walking, talking, and later dressing and feeding oneself, as well as learning to control bowel functions, are all tasks that the child learns during this stage. And increasingly, she or he wants to do these things without adult help. But adults realize that the child is not always capable of doing these things herself, and patience with letting her have her own way can wear thin. The child, in turn, seems at times to be at war with her parents. She wants to do things on her own, yet can’t – a very frustrating situation all around! The child often feels ashamed of his or her lack of control when, for example, sitting on a potty trying to control urinary or bowel functions. The parent also risks increasing the child’s shame, either unintentionally (by a lack of patience, for instance) or intentionally (by exhibiting anger or ridicule). Shame and doubt are the natural opposites of childhood autonomy. How is a parent to handle such conflicts? There are, unfortunately, no easy answers to the dilemma of the willfulness seen in the â€Å"terrible twos. † Will is indeed the basic strength of this stage, compulsion the negative core weakness. The parents must be patient with the child, 9-8 but not to the point of sainthood. Parents must establish – and children desperately need – rules or standards of proper behavior. The child must learn the meaning of the word â€Å"no. † But often the willful child learns this only too well – she frequently defies parental requests using this same word. Here Erikson, like Kohlberg (Chapter 7), stresses the learning of â€Å"law and order. † But parents who over control their children risk increased shame and lack of a sense of autonomy: such over controlling behavior can break the child’s will and (Erikson believed) lead to the kinds of â€Å"anal† neuroses (extreme compulsiveness or messiness) described by Freud. Erikson also noted that different cultures have different standards of parental expectations for children’s behavior. The Lakota Sioux tribe, for instance, does not try to force children to learn how to control their toilet behavior; instead, children learn naturally in time through imitation. By contrast, the standards for children in the United States today may seem much more restrictive; Erikson (even back in his time) thought that our society was very restrictive and â€Å"sanitized. † In recapping, Erikson expanded Freud’s ideas about the so-called anal stage in several ways. First, he expanded the notion of the child’s need for control or autonomy beyond just toilet training, to a number of physical challenges such as walking, learning to do things for him or herself, and so forth. Second, he emphasized the role of the development of the ego here as in other stages, as opposed to Freud’s developmental psychology anchored in id impulses. And third, rather than see the challenges of childhood from the limited standpoint of a given culture, he noted that these challenges and the way they are handled by parents and ociety differ across cultural settings. Third Stage: Initiative versus Guilt (Psychosexual Modes are Genital, Locomotor) Here again Erikson does not break away from Freud – he does acknowledge oedipal factors in development – but yet at the same time he expands and broadens the description of this stage by increasingly recognizing social factors. On the more traditional side he states that â€Å"Infantile sexuality and incest taboo, castration complex and superego all unite here to bring about that specifically human crisis which the child must turn from an exclusive, pre-genital 9-9 ttachment to his parents to the slow process of becoming a parent, a carrier of tradition† (1950/1985, p. 256). But notice that this Freudian endorsement also contains the notion that the child identifies with the parent, and by doing so learns to adopt and internalize the role of the same-sex parent through observation and imitation. Initiative is implied in these attempts at imitation, but guilt occurs when the child’s developing conscience feels in competition with the parent (i. e. , oedipal feelings). The parents are viewed by the child as big, powerful, and threatening – and the truth in these perceptions is evident even if one discounts the Freudian notions of castration anxieties or penis envy. Initiative is actualized through the child’s expanding repertoire of capabilities. Children at this age are extremely active and mobile, or in Erikson’s terms, locomotive. They are talkative, and they experiment and learn through imaginative play. (The latter idea seems likely to have been inspired by Erikson’s training in the Montessori method; notice, too, the parallel with Piagetian theory. The child’s conscience can put a damper on this very active development, however, if parents instill guilt feelings by insisting too strongly on â€Å"good† behavior. Thus while the basic strength associated with this period is a sense of purpose, the core weakness is inhibition. Fourth Stage: Industry versus Inferiority (Psychosexual Mode is Latency) Accor ding to Erikson, the child has at this stage (per Freud) sublimated oedipal impulses and â€Å"now learns to win recognition by producing things. He has mastered the ambulatory field and the organ modes . . . . He develops industry – i. e. he adjusts himself to the inorganic laws of the tool world . . . . His ego boundaries include his tools and skills: the work principle . . . teaches him the pleasure of work completion by steady attention and persevering diligence† (1950/1985, p. 259). The basic strength of this stage is therefore competence. The child that is ill prepared for school or lacks the tools for learning from life’s experience will despair. Successful resolution of crisis at this stage stems largely from preparation at earlier stages. Erikson used the term inertia (as in inert, or passiveness) to define the core pathology, the antithesis of competence. But for most children, this is a period of relative calm, as it was in Freud’s exposition. Inner 9-10 conflicts give way to increased learning and mastery of the skills needed to succeed in later life. Fifth Stage: Identity versus Role Confusion (Psychosexual Mode is Puberty) Adolescence is a time of great change: the body and the sexual organs mature, new expectations for social and academic adjustments arise with the transition to middle school, self-image typically suffers, and life can be very stressful, especially in the earlier transition stage. The basic task of this period is to separate oneself from one’s parents – especially the same-sex parent – and to assume an identity of one’s own. The latter is a very difficult task; many people do not fully succeed in it today until they are well beyond their teen years! Oedipal conflicts again return with full force (in agreement with Freud), but the child who is no longer quite a child must now learn to displace the sexual feelings for his or her opposite sex parents onto others. In the later phases, this is done partially through ritual courtship practices traditionally known in our own society as â€Å"dating. Teens not to merely learn â€Å"who they are,† they must at the same time learn to define and invent themselves. Identities are tried out like new suits of clothes. Role models may be parents, teachers, coaches, film stars, athletes, or â€Å"outlaws. † Parents can rightly guess that the latter is a potential nightmare. But paren tal perceptions can be distorted too; teen rebelliousness sometimes takes a â€Å"dark† turn, but this doesn’t mean that the youngster has lost her or his core set of values. Metallic† or â€Å"Goth† appearances and piercings are usually just experiments (thought tattoos are permanent), and the worried parent can usually get through these stages with the mantra that â€Å"this, too, shall pass! † But there are times when the wise parent must put his/her foot down and assume a more authoritarian role: teens, like small children, sometimes require the imposition of rules and limits, especially where their activities border on danger – as in the cases of drug experimentation, permissive sexual behavior, or hanging out with the â€Å"wrong crowd. The conflict for the parent, then, is how much freedom to grant, and how much control to assume, over the young person who is at once both a child and an adult. The fostering 9-11 of mutual respect and appreciation of the positions of both parties is the key. The teen years are indeed a time of identity crisis, or in Erikson’s terms â€Å"a turning point of increased vulnerability and heightened potential† (1968, p. 96). The basic task is, in Erikson’s terms, fidelity or truthfulness and consistency to one’s core self or faith in one’s ideology. The core pathology is repudiation of the assumption of a healthy role formation. Repudiation can take the form of defiance of authority or of resignation and despair, which Erikson termed diffidence. Some of the coping mechanisms for the teen who is confronting his or her identity that Erikson discusses (also see Kroger, 2000) are: †¢ Foreclosure: In order to suppress the anxiety that attends lack of identity, some adolescents prematurely assume an identity of convenience; someone else’s value system, such as that of one’s parents, without giving the matter very much thought or consideration. Example: â€Å"My father was a dentist – I know that’s what he has in mind for me and that is what I shall become. † Moratorium: A â€Å"time out† or suspension of the search for oneself while exploring different options. Example: Erikson himself used this strategy in his youth as he wandered through Europe before committing himself to a career. Diffusion: This essentially represents a kind of apathy in which the youth lacks any kind of passion or commitment. Example: â€Å"I don’t really feel committed to anything – I do what I can to get by in school. As another example, from Arthur Miller’s (1949/1976) play, Death of a Salesman, the character Biff states: â€Å"I just can’t take hold, Mom, I just can’t take hold of some kind of a life† (cited in Erikson, 1959/1980, p. 97). Positive role identity or identity achievement: This is the sense of really knowing who one is and in general, where one is headed in life. Example: â€Å"I know that I value justice – I intend to study law and do my part to make a better world. † 9-12 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Negative role identity: This refers to the rebellious denial of the expectations of parents or society; the opposite is instead chosen. Example: The son of a police officer decides to join a gang of drug users and petty thieves. Sixth Stage: Intimacy versus Isolation (Psychosexual Mode is Genitality) Erikson viewed intimacy or closeness and mutual sharing with another as the basic strength of this stage, isolation as its core pathology. Erikson believed that intimacy between two people as a couple was only possible when each had developed a strong sense of identity separately. Unfortunately, many couples in his day married at a very young age, so this was by no means always the case. The dilemma is that it is difficult (though possible in rare cases) for two people to grow and mature together unless they have first matured separately. Not surprisingly, divorce is a common outcome for couples who marry while still quite young and immature. Young adults often still have not advanced in maturity from adolescence. Although some have achieved a level of maturity by the early twenties, many others do not arrive at this level until well into their thirties – and still others never do attain full maturity! In today’s complex world, attainment of maturity and relative independence seems to take considerable time. Perhaps it is fortunate, then, that people tend to marry somewhat later than they did in the 1950s. By genitality Erikson referred to sexual intimacy. This is the physical correlate of psychological intimacy. Good sexual relations depend on the ability of each partner to share and care, not to exploit or hurt the other. Sexual love must be unselfish. Seventh Stage: Generativity versus Stagnation (Psychosexual Mode is Procreativity) To a great extent both Freudian and Eriksonian psychoanalysis emphasized the normalcy of traditional morality. At the times they were writing conventional social standards called for young men and women to marry and produce children. The man was expected to have a career or profession, which for the woman was optional. Times have obviously changed, as today marriage itself is seen by many people as an option, even if they are engaged in a long-term relationship and 9-13 have children. Homosexual marriage, though quite controversial as of this writing, may one day be accepted in society. But homosexuality itself, once seen as a psychological disorder, is no longer considered such by psychiatrists and psychologists. When Freud and Erikson were writing, sexual intercourse culminating in mutual orgasm in a marital relationship was considered the ideal expression of complete fulfillment between a man and a woman. Since the pioneering work of Masters and Johnson (1966), ideas about sex and love have changed. The combination of sex, love, and commitment (whether or not people are married) still resonates with many people as an ideal kind of relationship. But other options – for instance, protected sex for its own sake between consenting adults prior to or without marriage – are now also acceptable to many people. Variations in sexual practices that go beyond standard intercourse are also now widely accepted by sex researchers and by the public as valid and welcomed alternatives in promoting mutual satisfaction to sexual partners. With these changing mores in mind, some of the earlier psychoanalytic writings may seem quaint to today’s reader. Freud in particular, for all his talk about sexual repression, would today be seen as a bit prudish in his ideas, and in his own life. But Freud began a trend of openness about sexual matters that continued well into the twentieth century, and changes in attitudes toward sexual practices were only beginning to be felt at the time the first edition of Erikson’s Childhood and Society first appeared in 1950; thus this context must be considered when evaluating his work. Remember too that Erikson was breaking new ground by extending the stages of development into the adult years and throughout the remainder of the lifespan. His writings on the later stages of development were highly innovative, if somewhat sketchy. Erikson’s ideal of generativity thus includes what many see as old-fashioned notions about conventional sex between married adults. But he also went beyond this: generativity in its broadest sense refers to creative and productive activity through work (recall Freud’s purported dictum on the importance of â€Å"love and work† from above). Generativity is about much more than sex and procreation! Erikson’s concept embraces a sense of caring for the future; caring for the next generation. Indeed, Erikson included working for a better world as 9-14 part of his concept. He recognized that fulfillment in life can be achieved without necessarily having children (or procreativity). But it does require the ability to care for and about others. The opposing concept to generativity is stagnation, or the loss of self in selfabsorption. Erikson also realized that, though generativity is a dominant theme in the middle years (thirties, forties, and fifties), this kind of caring concern for future generations has its seeds in early adulthood – the childbearing years – and continues throughout the remainder of the lifespan. A sense of connectedness of one generation with another is implied in the concept, and generativity is, in the broadest sense, a symbolic link to immortality through acts and works that will survive the individual. Based on his own research as well as that of others, Dan McAdams (2001) stated that â€Å"Highly generative adults tend to express a more spiritual understanding of life . . . than do less generative adults. Generativity is also positively associated with volunteerism, community involvement, and voting. Social institutions such as schools, churches, and government agencies depend on the generative efforts of adults. † Philanthropy as a Form of Generativity Erikson’s concept of generativity implies not simply having children but to giving back or contributing to society and future generations. In the case of philanthropy, giving consists of donating money and time to worthy causes. The Biblical adage â€Å"For of those to whom much is given, much will be required† (Luke 12:48) applies. Or as another saying has it, â€Å"You can’t take it with you. Thus, in the nineteenth century, great money givers included men who made enormous wealth in the industrial revolution, such as Andrew Carnegie (founder of U. S. Steel) and John D. Rockefeller (Standard Oil). These were joined in the twentieth century by billionaires such as J. Paul Getty (oil industry) and Howard Hughes (aircraft and tools). Vast portions of their wealth was used to establish libraries, museums, educational endowments and for medicine and scientific research. Now in the twenty-first century the world’s second richest man, Warren Buffett, has joined the world’s wealthiest man and his wife, 9-15 Bill and Melinda Gates, in their efforts to fight worldwide disease (including AIDS and malaria) and famine, and to promote educational and scientific research enterprises. Although much less wealthy by comparison, the rock artist Bono uses his influence to raise money and lobby governments to advance similar causes. So at a time in which corporate greed and corruption has been making headlines, it is refreshing to see this all of this industrial capital being put to use for such noble causes. And although these names are making news today due to the magnitude of their contributions, many other wealthy and successful business people have contributed large sums to worthy causes in recent years, including Ted Turner, Walter Annenberg, and John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur. Former President Bill Clinton recently (at the time of this writing) raised an incredible seven billion dollars for treatment of AIDS in African countries. Contributors included Gates and Buffett, but also media personalities such as Barbara Streisand and media giant Rupert Murdoch. Carnegie believed that the man who died rich died in shame. Much of his fortune went to financing the arts and education. Rockefeller, though he did die a very wealthy man, was a devout Baptist who gave away vast portions of his wealth. â€Å"Rockefeller raised the quality of training doctors in America and found a vaccine for yellow fever. [His foundation] also drove the ‘green revolution’ in agriculture that ended famine in much of the world and, by some estimates, saved 1. 5 billion lives† (The Economist, 2006). In the same article it was noted that Gates’ mother taught him the importance of giving back, and that Buffett didn’t believe in dynastic fortunes (though too be sure, his descendents will not be left impoverished). It will be interesting to observe the progress of the Gates Foundation in improving the quality of life for both the underprivileged as well as the rest of us over the ensuing years because according to The Economist, their combined projected contributions of well over sixty billion dollars dwarfs that of Carnegie and Rockefeller combined (in adjusted dollars). The possibilities are astounding! But the lesson for the rest of us is that we each can do something to contribute to making the world a better place, be it in monetary donations to favorite charities, or in volunteering our time to help others. 9-16 Eighth Stage: Integrity versus Despair (Psychosexual Mode is â€Å"Generalized†) Integrity in the later years of life implies acceptance of a life that was well-lived. It does not mean that life is over, for these can often be very productive years. But by this age a person begins take a reflective and evaluative look back at his or her life. A person may ask questions like â€Å"Was my life fulfilling? † or â€Å"What was I able to accomplish? † Life is full of choices and there are always many roads that were not taken by all of us. Everyone makes mistakes, including some major or even tragic ones. To be fulfilled does not mean that one has led a perfect life! But if one has managed life reasonably well and come to grips with one’s shortcomings, practiced meaningful selfforgiveness where called for, and taken into account both positive and negative factors from one’s past, then a positive sense of integrity ensues. Despair, however, implies a lack of further hope. Despair can result from unfulfilled potential or a feeling that one has wasted one’s life, without hope for personal redemption. Despair is often disguised by an outward attitude of contempt toward others. Such contempt, according to Erikson, really reflects contempt for the self, projected outward. After a lifetime of living and learning, Erikson stated that wisdom is the basic strength associated with later years, based on the welllived life. Disdain is the core pathology of this stage. some time and place in such a way that our world would be replicated exactly? And in fact, if one really thinks about it, wouldn’t this same recurrence happen over and over in the course of infinite time, where all people and all things would then exist in exactly the same configuration? (The argument is similar to that of a roomful of monkeys randomly banging away on typewriters over the eons, eventually reproducing Shakespeare’s works. ) Nietzsche called this concept the eternal return. In the novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being Milan Kundera (1984) considers this possibility and its moral implications. He asks: What does this mad myth signify? Putting it negatively, the myth of eternal return states that a life which disappears once and for all, and does not return, is like a shadow, without weight, dead in advance, and whether it was horrible, beautiful, or sublime, its horror, sublimity, and beauty mean nothing. We need to take no more note of it than a war between two African kingdoms in the fourteenth century, a war that altered nothing in the destiny of the world, even if a hundred thousand blacks perished in excruciating torment . . . . how can we condemn something that is ephemeral, in transit? In the sunset of dissolution, everything is illuminated by the aura of nostalgia . . . (pp. 4-5). But on the other hand: If the French Revolution were to recur eternally, French historians would be less proud of Robespierre . . . There is an infinite difference between a Robespierre who occurs only once in history, and a Robespierre who eternally returns, chopping off French heads. (p. 4). The Life of Integrity and the â€Å"Unbearable Lightness of Being† How ought a person to live the â€Å"good life†? This is a question that philosophers and theologians have grappled with for centuries. A person has only one life to live, right? Perhaps, but Buddhists and Hindus believe in reincarnation. Friedrich Nietzsche posed an interesting thought experiment. Suppose time and the universe were (as was then thought) infinite in magnitude and eternal with respect to time. Would this mean that ultimately by random chance atoms would rearrange themselves at 9-17 The first scenario – what happens just happens, then passes and in time is forgotten, Kundera believes carries no weight – instead, it calls for a â€Å"lightness of being. But the second is â€Å"heavy† – the consequences are in a sense â€Å"eternal. † He asks the reader â€Å"What then shall we choose? Weight or lightness? † The novel then proceeds with four characters, two of whom seem to embody â€Å"lightness† – a lifestyle of living in the present and seeking pleasure whenever it can be found; and two whom represent â€Å"heaviness† – a way of lif e that looks to the past and to the future and weighs the consequences of their actions. The plot takes place in Czechoslovakia during the time of the uprising of the people against the Soviet Union, in Prague, 9-18 968. The moral implications of the characters and their actions, and their implications for personal integrity, are wisely left to the reader. Joan Erikson: The Ninth Stage Joan Erikson was Erik’s partner in thinking and in authorship, though sometimes a silent one – yet they worked as a team for over sixty years. In The Life Cycle Completed (Erikson, 1997) much of what is seen in this final revision of an earlier book came from Joan’s hand, including final chapters written by her alone. Yet Erik’s voice is there, too. When the earlier (Erikson, 1982) version first appeared, Erik Erikson â€Å"left no page free of underlining, exclamation marks, and notes. Only an artist would be so daring and forthright,† according to Joan Erikson, in her preface to the extended edition (1997, p. 5). In fact, it could be said that neither of the Eriksons were ever quite satisfied with their achievements, because they were both, in fact, living and experiencing the life cycle first hand while at the same time observing themselves and others. And the truth is that they first wrote about the eighth stage before they had even come close to experiencing that stage for themselves. Clearly, the Erikson’s came to believe, â€Å"the role of old age needs to be reobserved, rethought† (J. Erikson, p. 62). This rethinking led Joan Erikson to formulate a ninth stage of very old age – for most people, this occurs in the eighties or in the nineties (for those who are fortunate enough to live so long! ). It is a time when physical health begins to deteriorate, when one has lost many close friends and family members, and when death itself becomes a much closer reality. In doing so she recognized (as Erik also had) the always close connection between culture and identity. In our own culture, she observed, old people are often isolated from the rest of the community. She quoted Erik as saying â€Å"Lacking a culturally viable ideal of old age, our civilization does not really harbor a concept of the whole life† (p. 114). As a result, she noted that â€Å"aged individuals are often ostracized, neglected, and overlooked; elders are seen no longer as bearers of wisdom but as embodiments of shame† (p. 144). She believed that â€Å"Something is terribly wrong. Why has it become necessary to send our elders ‘out of this world’ into some facility [such as retirement communities and assisted living facilities] to live 9-19 out their lives in physical care and comfort? † (p. 118). Such treatment runs quite counter to traditional cultures, in which elderly people are cherished and valued for their wisdom and their connectedness with the past, and their contribution to and connections with the younger generations (generativity again). More positively, she believed that â€Å"old people can and do maintain a grand-generative function† (p. 63; as in grand-parenting). Among the challenges of the ninth stage is the loss of autonomy (per the second stage of development) due to increasing loss of physical (and sometimes mental) independence. Loss of self-esteem is a common result, and reduced hope and trust (or regression back to the first stage) may result. Joan Erikson promotes Lars Tornstam’s (1993) concept of gerotranscendence toward the final stage of life, which consists of these changes in perception: 1. A feeling of â€Å"cosmic communion† with the universe (or spiritual connectedness), 2. Time being circumscribed (the future is limited), 3. Reduced mobility, implying a narrowing of personal space, 4. Death being seen philosophically as â€Å"the way of all living things,† and 5. A sense of self expanding to include â€Å"a wider range of interrelated others† (J. Erikson, in Erikson, 1997, p. 124). She also offers a number of constructive suggestions on how our society could improve on its regard for, and care of, its elderly (e. g. , hospice is good, but isolation from others – especially the very young – is not). It seems appropriate to end this section with this quote from her final chapter (p. 128): To grow old is a great privilege. 9-20 Evaluating Erikson Erikson’s Positive Contributions Erikson’s quotations cited at the chapter’s beginning suggest a kind of modesty – Erikson brought his artistic sense and sensibilities to his writing and offers a new way of looking at things. But his modesty belied his major contribution to psychology. It is true that the days of the â€Å"Grand Theories† in psychology – those attempts to unite the many threads from extant research findings and isolated observations into a tightly woven fabric of theoretical â€Å"silk† – seem to be a thing of the past. Piaget, Freud, Erikson, and some of the humanists (Rogers and Maslow) were all theorists in this grand sense. There is much more demand today for hard data to support more modest models and mini-theories, without the speculative gaps that existed for these earlier theorists. But Erikson’s perspective has achieved several worthy ends. He not only expanded Freud’s theory to later stages of life, but he also broadened it considerably, by emphasizing cultural differences and by his stressing the development of the ego through identity challenges that were more psychosocial than strictly biological. In couching his theory in terms of these identity crises, he provided a broad (and yes, artistic) framework for viewing development throughout the lifespan. Although based largely on personal observation and intuition, including reflections on his own life, many of these observations were indeed insightful, and have led to many new and fruitful research studies (e. g. , de St. Aubin, McAdams, Kim, 2003; McAdams de St. Aubin, 1998, on generativity). Erikson’s belief that couples who married young were most likely to succeed when each of the individuals has achieved a degree of identity themselves has also received support in empirical research (Helson Pals, 2000; Pals, 1999), at least in terms of women’s self-identity. And Marcia (1966; 1980) has studied adolescent identity formation according to Eriksonian principles. Critiques of Erikson If Erikson’s artistic, prosaic style has inspired many people it can also be criticized for its vagueness and subjectivity. Erikson himself 9-21 accepts this criticism implicitly in affirming that he was guided by his artistic sense, not by scientific training or methodology. Erikson also wrote in the male voice, as was typical of psychologists (and indeed, most scientific writers) of an earlier age. But beyond that, Carol Gilligan (1982) believed that he also portrayed a masculine psychology in his stages of development. She noted that Erikson (1968) recognized a somewhat different pattern of development for girls and women – one that depends more on intimacy and relationships with others and less on autonomy, separateness, and independence – but that Erikson failed to update his stage descriptions accordingly. Putting Erikson in Perspective Though the criticisms of Erikson seem valid, Erikson seemed to want to be taken â€Å"as is† rather than to address them through revision. Perhaps, then, it remains for others to update Erikson, both in terms of the need to differentiate girls’ and (women’s) developmental paths from boys’ (and men’s) and in the more general need to fill in the conceptual gaps in his theory with new research findings. Erikson will no doubt be remembered as a great synthesizer as well as an original thinker; and as a one who provided a valuable conceptual framework for understanding human personality development through personal identity, yet still within the psychodynamic tradition. There is also little doubt that his ideas will continue to guide research in human development for many years to come. ***** 9-22 For Thought and Discussion Notes 1. In the first stage of development – Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust – Erikson believes that an anxious mother can transmit her anxiety to her child, with negative consequences for that child’s development. Suppose a correlational study was conducted in which a correlation was indeed found between mothers’ and babies’ anxiety. Correlation, of course, does not imply causation. What alternative explanations might be suggested to account for this finding? 2. If you have (or have had) children at the second stage of development (Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt), think of the kinds of conflicts of will you have had with your children. Make notes on these and share with the class. 3. Pick any two of Erikson’s eight stages. Think of someone you know who seems to fit into each of these stages in a positive or negative way. Describe them (share with the class). 4. Class discussion: Erikson and Freud were both very traditional in their ideas about sexual adjustment. Think about how times have changed, and discuss alternative ideas. 5. Erikson thought that anxious mothers transmitted their anxiety to their infant children, resulting in feelings of insecurity and lack of trust. What alternative explanations might account for such insecurity in babies? 6. Think about your own life and where you are going. What kind of an old age would you like to have? (For class sharing. ) 7. How does the treatment of elderly people in our culture differ from that of traditional cultures? How might the treatment of elderly people be improved in our society? . To what extent do you think that Erikson’s framework applies (or fails to apply) to women as well as to men? To what extent do you think it would work or not work with other cultures? 1. Erikson (1950, p. 13). 2. Erikson (1950/1985, p. 359. Both this and the previous quote suggest a kind of modesty in Erikson regarding his contributions. In a sense, both quotes are accurate, yet taken at face value the y belie his true genius. There always has been and hopefully there always will be a place for the keen perspective of the artful eye in psychology. ***** 9-23 9-24